Timezone: »
Researchers investigating example hardness have increasingly focused on the dynamics by which neural networks learn and forget examples throughout training. Popular metrics derived from these dynamics include (i) the epoch at which examples are first correctly classified; (ii) the number of times their predictions flip during training; and (iii) whether their prediction flips if they are held out. However, these metrics do not distinguish among examples that are hard for distinct reasons, such as membership in a rare subpopulation, being mislabeled, or belonging to a complex subpopulation. In this paper, we propose second-split forgetting time (SSFT), a complementary metric that tracks the epoch (if any) after which an original training example is forgotten as the network is fine-tuned on a randomly held out partition of the data. Across multiple benchmark datasets and modalities, we demonstrate that mislabeled examples are forgotten quickly, and seemingly rare examples are forgotten comparatively slowly. By contrast, metrics only considering the first split learning dynamics struggle to differentiate the two. At large learning rates, SSFT tends to be robust across architectures, optimizers, and random seeds. From a practical standpoint, the SSFT can (i) help to identify mislabeled samples, the removal of which improves generalization; and (ii) provide insights about failure modes. Through theoretical analysis addressing overparameterized linear models, we provide insights into how the observed phenomena may arise.
Author Information
Pratyush Maini (Carnegie Mellon University)
Saurabh Garg (Carnegie Mellon University)
Zachary Lipton (Carnegie Mellon University)
J. Zico Kolter (Carnegie Mellon University / Bosch Center for AI)
Zico Kolter is an Assistant Professor in the School of Computer Science at Carnegie Mellon University, and also serves as Chief Scientist of AI Research for the Bosch Center for Artificial Intelligence. His work focuses on the intersection of machine learning and optimization, with a large focus on developing more robust, explainable, and rigorous methods in deep learning. In addition, he has worked on a number of application areas, highlighted by work on sustainability and smart energy systems. He is the recipient of the DARPA Young Faculty Award, and best paper awards at KDD, IJCAI, and PESGM.
More from the Same Authors
-
2020 : An adversarially robust approach to security-constrained optimal power flow »
Neeraj Vijay Bedmutha · Priya Donti · J. Zico Kolter -
2021 Spotlight: Mixture Proportion Estimation and PU Learning:A Modern Approach »
Saurabh Garg · Yifan Wu · Alexander Smola · Sivaraman Balakrishnan · Zachary Lipton -
2021 : Model-Free Learning for Continuous Timing as an Action »
Helen Zhou · David Childers · Zachary Lipton -
2021 : Leveraging Unlabeled Data to Predict Out-of-Distribution Performance »
Saurabh Garg · Sivaraman Balakrishnan · Zachary Lipton · Behnam Neyshabur · Hanie Sedghi -
2022 : Downstream Datasets Make Surprisingly Good Pretraining Corpora »
Kundan Krishna · Saurabh Garg · Jeffrey Bigham · Zachary Lipton -
2022 : Disentangling the Mechanisms Behind Implicit Regularization in SGD »
Zachary Novack · Simran Kaur · Tanya Marwah · Saurabh Garg · Zachary Lipton -
2022 : Deconstructing Distributions: A Pointwise Framework of Learning »
Gal Kaplun · Nikhil Ghosh · Saurabh Garg · Boaz Barak · Preetum Nakkiran -
2022 : RLSBench: A Large-Scale Empirical Study of Domain Adaptation Under Relaxed Label Shift »
Saurabh Garg · Nick Erickson · James Sharpnack · Alexander Smola · Sivaraman Balakrishnan · Zachary Lipton -
2022 : Generative Posterior Networks for Approximately Bayesian Epistemic Uncertainty Estimation »
Melrose Roderick · Felix Berkenkamp · Fatemeh Sheikholeslami · J. Zico Kolter -
2022 : Denoised Smoothing with Sample Rejection for Robustifying Pretrained Classifiers »
Fatemeh Sheikholeslami · Wan-Yi Lin · Jan Hendrik Metzen · Huan Zhang · J. Zico Kolter -
2022 : Local Causal Discovery for Estimating Causal Effects »
Shantanu Gupta · David Childers · Zachary Lipton -
2022 : A Unified Approach to Reinforcement Learning, Quantal Response Equilibria, and Two-Player Zero-Sum Games »
Samuel Sokota · Ryan D'Orazio · J. Zico Kolter · Nicolas Loizou · Marc Lanctot · Ioannis Mitliagkas · Noam Brown · Christian Kroer -
2022 : Uncertainty-Driven Exploration for Generalization in Reinforcement Learning »
Yiding Jiang · J. Zico Kolter · Roberta Raileanu -
2022 : On the Maximum Hessian Eigenvalue and Generalization »
Simran Kaur · Jeremy M Cohen · Zachary Lipton -
2022 : Improving Adversarial Robustness via Joint Classification and Multiple Explicit Detection Classes »
Sina Baharlouei · Fatemeh Sheikholeslami · Meisam Razaviyayn · J. Zico Kolter -
2023 Workshop: XAI in Action: Past, Present, and Future Applications »
Chhavi Yadav · Michal Moshkovitz · Nave Frost · Suraj Srinivas · Bingqing Chen · Valentyn Boreiko · Himabindu Lakkaraju · J. Zico Kolter · Dotan Di Castro · Kamalika Chaudhuri -
2023 Workshop: Workshop on robustness of zero/few-shot learning in foundation models (R0-FoMo) »
Ananth Balashankar · Saurabh Garg · Jindong Gu · Amrith Setlur · Yao Qin · Aditi Raghunathan · Ahmad Beirami -
2022 Workshop: Trustworthy and Socially Responsible Machine Learning »
Huan Zhang · Linyi Li · Chaowei Xiao · J. Zico Kolter · Anima Anandkumar · Bo Li -
2022 : Zico Kolter, Adapt like you train: How optimization at training time affects model finetuning and adaptation »
J. Zico Kolter -
2022 : Panel on Technical Challenges Associated with Reliable Human Evaluations of Generative Models »
Long Ouyang · Tongshuang Wu · Zachary Lipton -
2022 Workshop: Human Evaluation of Generative Models »
Divyansh Kaushik · Jennifer Hsia · Jessica Huynh · Yonadav Shavit · Samuel Bowman · Ting-Hao Huang · Douwe Kiela · Zachary Lipton · Eric Michael Smith -
2022 Poster: Learning Options via Compression »
Yiding Jiang · Evan Liu · Benjamin Eysenbach · J. Zico Kolter · Chelsea Finn -
2022 Poster: Unsupervised Learning under Latent Label Shift »
Manley Roberts · Pranav Mani · Saurabh Garg · Zachary Lipton -
2022 Poster: Domain Adaptation under Open Set Label Shift »
Saurabh Garg · Sivaraman Balakrishnan · Zachary Lipton -
2022 Poster: Efficiently Computing Local Lipschitz Constants of Neural Networks via Bound Propagation »
Zhouxing Shi · Yihan Wang · Huan Zhang · J. Zico Kolter · Cho-Jui Hsieh -
2022 Poster: Test Time Adaptation via Conjugate Pseudo-labels »
Sachin Goyal · Mingjie Sun · Aditi Raghunathan · J. Zico Kolter -
2022 Poster: Deep Equilibrium Approaches to Diffusion Models »
Ashwini Pokle · Zhengyang Geng · J. Zico Kolter -
2022 Poster: Agreement-on-the-line: Predicting the Performance of Neural Networks under Distribution Shift »
Christina Baek · Yiding Jiang · Aditi Raghunathan · J. Zico Kolter -
2022 Poster: General Cutting Planes for Bound-Propagation-Based Neural Network Verification »
Huan Zhang · Shiqi Wang · Kaidi Xu · Linyi Li · Bo Li · Suman Jana · Cho-Jui Hsieh · J. Zico Kolter -
2022 Poster: Path Independent Equilibrium Models Can Better Exploit Test-Time Computation »
Cem Anil · Ashwini Pokle · Kaiqu Liang · Johannes Treutlein · Yuhuai Wu · Shaojie Bai · J. Zico Kolter · Roger Grosse -
2022 Poster: The Pitfalls of Regularization in Off-Policy TD Learning »
Gaurav Manek · J. Zico Kolter -
2021 : Panel B: Safe Learning and Decision Making in Uncertain and Unstructured Environments »
Yisong Yue · J. Zico Kolter · Ivan Dario D Jimenez Rodriguez · Dragos Margineantu · Animesh Garg · Melissa Greeff -
2021 : Enforcing Robustness for Neural Network Policies »
J. Zico Kolter -
2021 Poster: Beta-CROWN: Efficient Bound Propagation with Per-neuron Split Constraints for Neural Network Robustness Verification »
Shiqi Wang · Huan Zhang · Kaidi Xu · Xue Lin · Suman Jana · Cho-Jui Hsieh · J. Zico Kolter -
2021 Poster: Joint inference and input optimization in equilibrium networks »
Swaminathan Gurumurthy · Shaojie Bai · Zachary Manchester · J. Zico Kolter -
2021 Poster: Mixture Proportion Estimation and PU Learning:A Modern Approach »
Saurabh Garg · Yifan Wu · Alexander Smola · Sivaraman Balakrishnan · Zachary Lipton -
2021 Poster: $(\textrm{Implicit})^2$: Implicit Layers for Implicit Representations »
Zhichun Huang · Shaojie Bai · J. Zico Kolter -
2021 Poster: Boosted CVaR Classification »
Runtian Zhai · Chen Dan · Arun Suggala · J. Zico Kolter · Pradeep Ravikumar -
2021 Poster: Training Certifiably Robust Neural Networks with Efficient Local Lipschitz Bounds »
Yujia Huang · Huan Zhang · Yuanyuan Shi · J. Zico Kolter · Anima Anandkumar -
2021 Poster: Adversarially robust learning for security-constrained optimal power flow »
Priya Donti · Aayushya Agarwal · Neeraj Vijay Bedmutha · Larry Pileggi · J. Zico Kolter -
2021 Poster: Robustness between the worst and average case »
Leslie Rice · Anna Bair · Huan Zhang · J. Zico Kolter -
2021 Poster: Monte Carlo Tree Search With Iteratively Refining State Abstractions »
Samuel Sokota · Caleb Y Ho · Zaheen Ahmad · J. Zico Kolter -
2020 : Contributed Talk 1: Fairness Under Partial Compliance »
Jessica Dai · Zachary Lipton -
2020 : Invited Talk (Zico Kolter) »
J. Zico Kolter -
2020 : Q & A and Panel Session with Tom Mitchell, Jenn Wortman Vaughan, Sanjoy Dasgupta, and Finale Doshi-Velez »
Tom Mitchell · Jennifer Wortman Vaughan · Sanjoy Dasgupta · Finale Doshi-Velez · Zachary Lipton -
2020 Workshop: HAMLETS: Human And Model in the Loop Evaluation and Training Strategies »
Divyansh Kaushik · Bhargavi Paranjape · Forough Arabshahi · Yanai Elazar · Yixin Nie · Max Bartolo · Polina Kirichenko · Pontus Lars Erik Saito Stenetorp · Mohit Bansal · Zachary Lipton · Douwe Kiela -
2020 Workshop: Machine Learning for Engineering Modeling, Simulation and Design »
Alex Beatson · Priya Donti · Amira Abdel-Rahman · Stephan Hoyer · Rose Yu · J. Zico Kolter · Ryan Adams -
2020 : Keynote by Zico Kolter »
J. Zico Kolter -
2020 Poster: Community detection using fast low-cardinality semidefinite programming
»
Po-Wei Wang · J. Zico Kolter -
2020 Poster: Deep Archimedean Copulas »
Chun Kai Ling · Fei Fang · J. Zico Kolter -
2020 Poster: A Unified View of Label Shift Estimation »
Saurabh Garg · Yifan Wu · Sivaraman Balakrishnan · Zachary Lipton -
2020 Tutorial: (Track3) Deep Implicit Layers: Neural ODEs, Equilibrium Models, and Differentiable Optimization Q&A »
David Duvenaud · J. Zico Kolter · Matthew Johnson -
2020 Poster: Efficient semidefinite-programming-based inference for binary and multi-class MRFs »
Chirag Pabbaraju · Po-Wei Wang · J. Zico Kolter -
2020 Spotlight: Efficient semidefinite-programming-based inference for binary and multi-class MRFs »
Chirag Pabbaraju · Po-Wei Wang · J. Zico Kolter -
2020 Poster: Multiscale Deep Equilibrium Models »
Shaojie Bai · Vladlen Koltun · J. Zico Kolter -
2020 Poster: Denoised Smoothing: A Provable Defense for Pretrained Classifiers »
Hadi Salman · Mingjie Sun · Greg Yang · Ashish Kapoor · J. Zico Kolter -
2020 Poster: Monotone operator equilibrium networks »
Ezra Winston · J. Zico Kolter -
2020 Spotlight: Monotone operator equilibrium networks »
Ezra Winston · J. Zico Kolter -
2020 Oral: Multiscale Deep Equilibrium Models »
Shaojie Bai · Vladlen Koltun · J. Zico Kolter -
2020 Tutorial: (Track3) Deep Implicit Layers: Neural ODEs, Equilibrium Models, and Differentiable Optimization »
David Duvenaud · J. Zico Kolter · Matthew Johnson -
2019 Poster: Failing Loudly: An Empirical Study of Methods for Detecting Dataset Shift »
Stephan Rabanser · Stephan Günnemann · Zachary Lipton -
2019 Poster: Learning Robust Global Representations by Penalizing Local Predictive Power »
Haohan Wang · Songwei Ge · Zachary Lipton · Eric Xing -
2019 Poster: Learning Stable Deep Dynamics Models »
J. Zico Kolter · Gaurav Manek -
2019 Poster: Adversarial Music: Real world Audio Adversary against Wake-word Detection System »
Juncheng Li · Shuhui Qu · Xinjian Li · Joseph Szurley · J. Zico Kolter · Florian Metze -
2019 Spotlight: Adversarial Music: Real world Audio Adversary against Wake-word Detection System »
Juncheng Li · Shuhui Qu · Xinjian Li · Joseph Szurley · J. Zico Kolter · Florian Metze -
2019 Poster: Differentiable Convex Optimization Layers »
Akshay Agrawal · Brandon Amos · Shane Barratt · Stephen Boyd · Steven Diamond · J. Zico Kolter -
2019 Poster: Uniform convergence may be unable to explain generalization in deep learning »
Vaishnavh Nagarajan · J. Zico Kolter -
2019 Poster: Game Design for Eliciting Distinguishable Behavior »
Fan Yang · Liu Leqi · Yifan Wu · Zachary Lipton · Pradeep Ravikumar · Tom M Mitchell · William Cohen -
2019 Poster: Deep Equilibrium Models »
Shaojie Bai · J. Zico Kolter · Vladlen Koltun -
2019 Spotlight: Deep Equilibrium Models »
Shaojie Bai · J. Zico Kolter · Vladlen Koltun -
2019 Oral: Uniform convergence may be unable to explain generalization in deep learning »
Vaishnavh Nagarajan · J. Zico Kolter -
2018 : Invited Talk 1 »
Zachary Lipton -
2018 : Panel on research process »
Zachary Lipton · Charles Sutton · Finale Doshi-Velez · Hanna Wallach · Suchi Saria · Rich Caruana · Thomas Rainforth -
2018 : Talk 1: Zico Kolter - Differentiable Physics and Control »
J. Zico Kolter -
2018 : Zachary Lipton »
Zachary Lipton -
2018 Poster: Differentiable MPC for End-to-end Planning and Control »
Brandon Amos · Ivan Jimenez · Jacob I Sacks · Byron Boots · J. Zico Kolter -
2018 Poster: End-to-End Differentiable Physics for Learning and Control »
Filipe de Avila Belbute Peres · Kevin Smith · Kelsey Allen · Josh Tenenbaum · J. Zico Kolter -
2018 Spotlight: End-to-End Differentiable Physics for Learning and Control »
Filipe de Avila Belbute Peres · Kevin Smith · Kelsey Allen · Josh Tenenbaum · J. Zico Kolter -
2018 Poster: Does mitigating ML's impact disparity require treatment disparity? »
Zachary Lipton · Julian McAuley · Alexandra Chouldechova -
2018 Poster: Scaling provable adversarial defenses »
Eric Wong · Frank Schmidt · Jan Hendrik Metzen · J. Zico Kolter -
2018 Tutorial: Adversarial Robustness: Theory and Practice »
J. Zico Kolter · Aleksander Madry -
2017 : Provable defenses against adversarial examples via the convex outer adversarial polytope »
J. Zico Kolter -
2017 Poster: Gradient descent GAN optimization is locally stable »
Vaishnavh Nagarajan · J. Zico Kolter -
2017 Oral: Gradient descent GAN optimization is locally stable »
Vaishnavh Nagarajan · J. Zico Kolter -
2017 Poster: Task-based End-to-end Model Learning in Stochastic Optimization »
Priya Donti · J. Zico Kolter · Brandon Amos -
2016 Poster: The Multiple Quantile Graphical Model »
Alnur Ali · J. Zico Kolter · Ryan Tibshirani -
2013 Workshop: Machine Learning for Sustainability »
Edwin Bonilla · Thomas Dietterich · Theodoros Damoulas · Andreas Krause · Daniel Sheldon · Iadine Chades · J. Zico Kolter · Bistra Dilkina · Carla Gomes · Hugo P Simao -
2011 Workshop: Machine Learning for Sustainability »
Thomas Dietterich · J. Zico Kolter · Matthew A Brown -
2011 Poster: The Fixed Points of Off-Policy TD »
J. Zico Kolter -
2011 Spotlight: The Fixed Points of Off-Policy TD »
J. Zico Kolter -
2010 Poster: Energy Disaggregation via Discriminative Sparse Coding »
J. Zico Kolter · Siddarth Batra · Andrew Y Ng -
2009 Mini Symposium: Machine Learning for Sustainability »
J. Zico Kolter · Thomas Dietterich · Andrew Y Ng -
2007 Spotlight: Hierarchical Apprenticeship Learning with Application to Quadruped Locomotion »
J. Zico Kolter · Pieter Abbeel · Andrew Y Ng -
2007 Poster: Hierarchical Apprenticeship Learning with Application to Quadruped Locomotion »
J. Zico Kolter · Pieter Abbeel · Andrew Y Ng